list of broken treaties with native american tribes

"The answer is always gold," she says. Native resistance to the treatys violation culminated in theBattle of the Little Bighornin 1876, after which government troops flooded the region. However, this supposed peace did not last long: In 1782, Pennsylvania militiamen murdered almost 100 Lenape citizens at Gnadenhutten, forcing the Lenape out toward Ohio. The treaty gave up all Cherokee lands east of the Mississippi River in exchange for $5 million and new territory in Oklahoma. For the first time ever, he wrote, members of some two hundred tribes had acted together for a common cause. The eight treaties featured in Nation to Nation: Treaties Between the United States and American Indian Nations, on loan from the National Archives and Records Administration, are representative of the approximately 374 that were ratified between the United States and Native Nations. Even though most Cherokee people considered the agreement fraudulent, and the Cherokee National Council formally rejected it in 1836, Congress ratified the treaty. An estimated 10 to 25 percent of Cherokee would die. Previous: [16] Dennis Banks and Richard Erdoes, Ojibwa Warrior: Dennis Banks and the Rise of the American Indian Movement (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2004), 144. Despite this sentiment, white settlers were already moving onto the lands designated for the Cherokee, leading to more conflict and the Treaty of Holston (1791), in which the Cherokee forfeited still more land. The treaty restored more than 1 million acres of land to the Seneca that had been ceded by treaty 10 years earlier and recognized the sovereignty of the Six Nations to govern themselves and set laws. Two years later, the Treaty of New Echota was used to justify the forced removal of the Cherokee people. Broken treaties with Native Americans not fixed by Supreme Court ruling. The Treaty of Canandaigua is one of the first treaties signed between Native American nations and the U.S. Treaty of Hopewell - 1785-86 In the years following the Revolutionary War, Andrew Pickens and other commissioners of the new U.S. government concluded three highly similar treaties with the. In 1811, Harrisonled an attackon a Native American camp on the Tippecanoe River, beginning a new U.S.-Native conflict that would last through theWar of 1812. The pipeline is still operational. Despite the damning evidence gathered by the demonstrators, the occupation backfired, at least in the immediate aftermath. You may also like: Stories behind the Trail of Tears for every state it passed through. "Broken Treaties" introduces viewers to Oregon's Native American tribes and explores a thread of the Oregon story that hasn't been told very well over the years. Treaty with the Chippewa of the Mississippi, Treaty with the Kiowa, Comanche, and Apache, Treaty with the SiouxBrule, Oglala, Miniconjou, Yanktonai, Hunkpapa, Blackfeet, Cuthead, Two Kettle, Sans Arcs, and Santeeand Arapaho, Treaty with the Northern Cheyenne and Northern Arapaho, Treaty with the Navajo Indians; Navajo Treaty of 1868; Bosque Redondo Treaty; Treaty of Hweldi, Treaty with the Eastern Band Shoshoni and Bannock, San Pasqual and Pala Valley Mission Indians, United States Code Title 25, Chapter 3, Subchapter 1, Section 71, Methow, Okanagan, Kootenay, Pend d'Oreille, Colville, North Spokane, San Poeil, Ottawa of Blanchards Fork and Roche de Boeuf, Omaha, Pawnee, Oto, Missouri, and Sac and Fox of the Missouri, Agreement with the Sisseton and Wahpeton Bands of Sioux Indians, Amended Agreement with Certain Sioux Indians, Gros Ventre, Piegan, Blood, Blackfoot, River Crow, Agreement 23 June 1874 confirmed, Eastern Shawnee lands to Modoc, Missin Indians (Portrero [Rincon, Gapich, LaJolla], Cahuila, Capitan Grande, Santa Ysabel [Mesa Grande], Pala, Agua Caliente, Sycuan, Inaja, Cosmit), Gros Ventre, Piegan, Blood, Blackfoot, and River Crow, Agreement with the Sioux of Various Tribes, Agreement Between the Turtle Mountain Indians and the Commission, Agreement Between the Red Lake Indians and the Commission, Turtle Mountain Chippewa Treaty; 10-cent Treaty; Agreement with the Turtle Mountain Band, amended and ratified, 1815 Commercial treaty with Great Britain Established free trade between the, 1951 Treaty of Security between the United States and Japan (updated 1960), 1954 U.S. and Japan Mutual Defense Assistance Agreement, 1962 Joint Declaration on Commercial Relations (with the, 1978 - Treaty on maritime boundaries between the United Mexican States and the United States of America, This page was last edited on 24 April 2023, at 16:54. hide caption. This belief, however, is a symptom of the historical amnesia that continues to relegate present-day Indigenous rights issues to the margins. Tecumseh and others argued that the treatys signers had no authority to sell the land and warned Americans not to settle there. In the 1855 Treaty of Washington, the Ojibwe ceded nearly all of their remaining land not already lost to the U.S. during previous treaties. Even though the participating tribes never approved the treaty, Congress ratified it in 1868 and then quickly began violating the terms, withholding payments, preventing hunting, and cutting down the size of reservations. The treaties were based on the fundamental idea that each tribe was an independent nation, with their own right to self-determination and self-rule. [10] Steve Hendricks, The Unquiet Grave: The FBI and the Struggle for the Soul of Indian Country (New York: Thunders Mouth Press, 2006), 38. There is a popular tendency to think of these treaties as inanimate artifacts of the distant past. Hank Adams, together with Dennis Banks and Russell Means of AIM, assembled eight Native organizations, including AIM, the Indians of All Tribes, the National Indian Youth Council, and others to bring their grievances directly to the government in the Trail of Broken Treaties. But shortly after the caravans departed in October, the Assistant Secretary of the Interior prohibited the BIA from extending any assistance to the caravan. This is mostly to distinguish them from the next category. A map of Native American cessions in the Northwest from 1789 to 1816. Though not technically a treaty, the Indian Removal Act of 1830 functioned as a displacement mechanism and was largely responsible for the treaties created over the following decades. The 1840s. However, the Dakota and Mendota never received either provision. Seeking to improve relations between his government and the Haudenosaunee Confederacy, a powerful group of six Iroquois-speaking tribes (the Mohawk, Cayuga, Onondaga, Oneida, Seneca and Tuscarora Nations), PresidentGeorge Washingtonsent his postmaster general, Timothy Pickering, to negotiate a treaty at Canandaigua, New York. April 30, 2023 contribute now As pioneers pushed into the Pacific Northwest in the 1800s, the U.S. government used treaties to acquire Indian lands and clear the way for settlement. Paul Morigi/AP The treaty stipulated peace between the Lenape and the U.S. as well as mutual support against the British. Pre-existing treaties were grandfathered, and further agreements were made under domestic law. Before their arrival in Washington, D.C., the original three caravans met in Minneapolis, Minnesota, where they drafted a document that laid out their specific objectives to the federal government. Concluded during the nearly 100-year period from the Revolutionary War to the aftermath of the Civil War, some 368 treaties would define the relationship between the United States and Native Americans for centuries to come. Many Cherokee resisted removal from their ancestral lands in the Southeast, bringing their struggle all the way to the U.S. Supreme Court. For most of American history, tribal governments tended to deal with the government on a one-to-one basis. But they quickly became interested in federal Indian policy as they recognized that policy as the root of Indian issues. After the American victory, more and more white settlers moved onto Lenape territory, until the Treaty of Greeneville in 1795 forced them and other Ohio Country Native Americans to surrender most of their lands. In the first official peace treaty between the new United States and a Native American nation, both sides agreed to maintain friendship and support each other against the British. hide caption. The treaties supposedly offered the three tribes the protection and friendship of the U.S. and promised no future settlement on tribal lands. Two years after the culmination of the Civil War, violence against Plains tribes instigated by westward-moving white settlers came to a head. You may also like: 20 influential Indigenous Americans you might not know about. 1744 - Treaty of Lancaster 1752 - Treaty of Logstown 1754 - Treaty of Albany 1758 - Treaty of Easton 1760 - Treaty of Pittsburgh 1763 - Treaty of Paris 1768 - Treaty of Hard Labour 1768 - Treaty of Fort Stanwix 1770 - Treaty of Lochaber 1774 - Treaty of Camp Charlotte U.S. international treaties [ edit] Treaty with the Nisqualli, Puyallup, etc. In 1811, Harrison led an attack on a Native American camp on the Tippecanoe River, beginning a new U.S.-Native conflict that would last through the War of 1812. Conflicts over Indian land rights, tribal sovereignty, and self-determination unfolded across the country, inspiring a new generation of American Indian activists who adopted confrontational tactics first brought to the attention of the American public through the Civil Rights Movement: sit-ins, occupations, and direct action. distribution partner, email us at Archivist of the United States David S . But despite the Courts ruling in Worcester v. Georgia (1832) that the Cherokee and other tribes were sovereign nations, the removal continued. In 2016, water protectors and activists established a camp at Standing Rock to prevent the pipeline's construction, where they were subjected to attack dogs and other methods of excessive force by law enforcement. At least seven other original paper treaties will be featured in rotation at the museum before the exhibit "Nation to Nation" ends in the fall of 2018. The treaty established. Treaty With the Kiowa, Comanche, and Apache; October 21, 1867. 71). A map of Native American cessions in the Northwest from 1789 to 1816. Though the participants could only suspect it at the time, later investigations would reveal that individuals within the BIA had been actively working against the movement. "The people who are citizens of the U.S., these are your treaties. [2] But 200 years of federal Indian policy had stripped Native American communities of most of their land, resources, and ability to act as independent nations. The violence spurred by this attack persisted into the War of 1812. Pike met with a group of Dakota leaders, who allegedly ceded 100,000 acres of land to build a fort and promote U.S. trade in exchange for an unspecified amount of money. ", A museum visitor views wampum belts, fans and other diplomatic tools used during the treaty-making process. The Treaty of Greenville saw the tribes of the Northwestern Confederacy cede large tracts of land in present-day Michigan, Ohio, Indiana, Wisconsin, and Illinois. On July 9, 2020, the U.S. Supreme Court handed down its decision McGirt v. Oklahoma, a case to determine whether Oklahoma . No one was dragging any land behind them when they came here. Indians began to examine the conditions under which they lived, and they soon seethed with discontent and a new determination to correct the injustices.[3] But this was more than an extension of the Civil Rights Movement. Part of a series of articles titled Microfilm publications of NARA records relating to American Indians, including records of the Bureau of Indian Affairs, census rolls, and treaties relating to territories. But as white settlers began moving onto Native American lands, this idea came into conflict with the relentless pace ofwestward expansionresulting in many broken promises on the part of the U.S. government. All Rights Reserved. [11] Frustrated at every turn, tensions continued to build when organizers discovered their accommodations in the basement of a rat-infested church to be woefully insufficient. The Piscataway peoples had long since ceased to live as a people, as European and American colonization in the 17th and 18th century had disrupted and dispersed tribal organizations. "They were not only scattered from their lands, and lots of people murdered during the Gold Rush, but they were erased from history," she explains. If your organization is interested in becoming a Stacker As long as the United States has negotiated treaties with Indigenous nations, it has broken those treaties. Hundreds of Native American treaties have been scanned and are freely available online, for the first time, through the National Archives Catalog. Inspired by the movement unfolding at his doorstep, the younger Tayac soon became involved in the AIM Resurrection Project, which organized the remnant communities of peoples and local tribes along the East Coast. Organizations like the National Indian Youth Council (NIYC), which had played a key role in the Poor Peoples Campaign, and the Survival of American Indians Association (SAIA) drew upon the direct action tactics of the Civil Rights Movement to advocate for Indian rights. While the act was framed as a peaceful and voluntary process, tribes that did not cooperate were made to comply through military force, cheated or tricked out of their land, or subjected to the violence of local white settlers. READ MORE: Native American History: Timeline. Treaty with the Sauk and Foxes and Iowas. Among the demonstrators were many who had fought for the United States in World War II, Korea, and Vietnam. We had to take control, occupy, and fight-whatever it took to bring our grievances to the forefront.[4] No longer would Native issues be pushed to the margins. As a society we love to hear about the weird, the odd and the bizarre. After the American victory, more and more white settlers moved onto Lenape territory, until the Treaty of Greeneville in 1795 forced them and other Ohio Country Native Americans to surrender most of their lands. Called the Trail of Broken Treaties, the demonstration brought caravans of Native American activists from the West Coast to Washington, D.C. to demand redress for years of failed and destructive federal Indian policies. Find History on Facebook (Opens in a new window), Find History on Twitter (Opens in a new window), Find History on YouTube (Opens in a new window), Find History on Instagram (Opens in a new window), Find History on TikTok (Opens in a new window), How the Battle of Tippecanoe Helped Win the White House, Why Andrew Jackson's Legacy Is So Controversial, An estimated 10 to 25 percent of Cherokee would die, How Native Americans Struggled to Survive on the Trail of Tears, https://www.history.com/news/native-american-broken-treaties, Broken Treaties With Native American Tribes: Timeline. Over the years, as the Six Nations territory was further reduced, the Onondaga, Seneca, Tuscarora and some Oneida remained in New York on reservations, while the Mohawk and Cayuga left for Canada and the Oneida settled in Wisconsin and Ontario. hide caption. (Lyons Press, 2017), which chronicles some of history's most famous disappearances. Instead of fame and fortune, the seven farmers found only despair. "No one gave us anything. Though Pike valued the purchase at $200,000 in his journal, he left only $200 worth of gifts upon signing. Sioux leaders rejected the payment, saying the land had never been for sale. Seeking to improve relations between his government and the Haudenosaunee Confederacy, a powerful group of six Iroquois-speaking tribes (the Mohawk, Cayuga, Onondaga, Oneida, Seneca and Tuscarora Nations), President George Washington sent his postmaster general, Timothy Pickering, to negotiate a treaty at Canandaigua, New York. Broken US-Indigenous treaties: A timeline, Treaty With the Delawares/Treaty of Fort Pitt (1778), Treaty of Canandaigua/Pickering Treaty (1794), Treaties of Traverse des Sioux and Mendota (1851), Land Cession Treaty with the Ojibwe/Treaty of Washington (1855), From Stonewall to today: 50+ years of modern LGBTQ+ history. [9] But in the fall of 1972, the objectives laid out in the Twenty Points plan were overshadowed by the events that unfolded after the caravans arrival in Washington. In five years' time, settlers would claim 2.8 million acres of Indian land. An estimated 10 to 25 percent of Cherokee would die during the 1,200-mile trek to Oklahoma, later known as the Trail of Tears., READ MORE: How Native Americans Struggled to Survive on the Trail of Tears. Kevin Gover, director of the National Museum of the American Indian, stands inside the "Nation to Nation" exhibit. While many treaties resulted in tragedies, Harjo says she hopes museum visitors will take away the full span of this diplomatic history. East Timor is one of the world's most decidedly unlucky countries. "But that doesn't mean the commitments that were entered into are completed or are undone.". As more white settlers moved west into the Great Lake region, a Native American confederacy including the Shawnee and Delaware, who had already been driven westward by U.S. expansion, as well as the Miami, Ottawa, Ojibwa and Potawatomi, mounted an armed resistance beginning in the late 1780s. The Sioux turned down the money, saying that the land had never been for sale. Blog of the Archivist of the United States. But after gold was discovered in the Black Hills, miners and settlers began moving onto the land en masse. In 2006 American Indian and Alaska Native persons comprised one percent of the state's population. Kevin Gover, director of the National Museum of the American Indian, stands inside the "Nation to Nation" exhibit. Native resistance to the treatys violation culminated in the Battle of the Little Bighorn in 1876, after which government troops flooded the region. At the journeys end, the demonstrators planned to bring their demands directly to government officials in the BIA and the White House. In 1832, the Potawatomi Nation signed a peace treaty with the U.S. ensuring the Potawatomi peoples safety on their reservations in Indiana. In 1980, the Supreme Court ruled that the Black Hills were illegally confiscated, and awarded the Sioux more than $100 million in reparations. The plan called for a cross-country caravans of thousands of Native Americans bound for D.C. More than two centuries later, the U.S. has kept one promise. Though removal was supposed to be voluntary, in practice Jackson used threats of withheld payments and legal and military action to conclude nearly 70 removal treaties over the course of his presidency, opening up some 25 million acres of land in the Southto white settlement, and slavery. Despite this apparent act of friendship, the land returned to the Six Nations was lost to U.S. expansion, and the tribes were forced to relocate. Also, in partnership with The Museum of Indian Arts and Culture (MIAC), these treaties and extensive additional historical and contextual information are available through Treaties Explorer (or DigiTreaties). The Trail of Broken Treaties: A March on Washington, DC 1972 "The idea of a convergence upon the nation's capital was discussed and accepted as a reasonable effort to sensitize both the Republican and Democratic parties to the profound problems faced by Indian people, and to exact from them firm pledges for enlightened, immediate changes." Consciously modeled on the sit-ins in the American South, the fish-ins triggered a wave of resistance across the Northwest and the nation. [5] Treaties are, in fact, living documents, which even today legally bind the United States to the promises it made to Native peoples centuries ago. Elected president in 1828, Jackson spearheaded theIndian Removal Act(1830) through Congress, by which the U.S. government granted land west of the Mississippi River to Native tribes who agreed to give up their homelands. Major newspaper headlines from the year you were born, Biggest Native American tribes in the U.S. today, Stories behind the Trail of Tears for every state it passed through, 20 influential Indigenous Americans you might not know about, https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/?ref=chooser-v1. Treaties also acknowledge the inherent sovereignty of Indigenous nations, a fact that has been disputed and undermined in U.S. courts and Congress since 1831, when the Supreme Court ruled that tribes were domestic dependent nations without self-determination. Viewing American Indian Treaties Treaty Between the U.S. and the Sauk and Fox Indians, November 3, 1804 View in National Archives Catalog The original ratified treaties between the United States and American Indian tribal nations are housed at the National Archives in Washington, DC, as the series, "Indian Treaties, 1722-1869" (National Archives Identifier 299798). More than 5,000 representatives of the Kiowa, Comanche, Arapaho, Kiowa-Apache, and Southern Cheyenne nations met with U.S. government delegates to ostensibly negotiate peace. In the midst of the occupation, demonstrators went through hundreds of boxes of BIA documents, which participants say proved the mismanagement and outright theft of money and other resources from Native Americans that were supposed to have been held in trust by the government. An estimated 10 to 25 percent of Cherokee would dieduring the 1,200-mile trek to Oklahoma, later known as the Trail of Tears.. Ultimately, the treaty relocated the Comanches and Kiowas onto one reservation and the Cheyennes and Arapahoes onto another. If nothing else, we had sent up one hell of a smoke signal.[16], [1] Alysa Landry, Lyndon B. Johnson: Indians are Forgotten Americans, Indian Country Today, 13 September 2018, accessed 20 March 2022. https://indiancountrytoday.com/archive/lyndon-b-johnson-indians-are-forgotten-americans, [2] Landry, Richard M. Nixon, Self-Determination Without Termination, Indian Country Today, 13, September 2018, accessed 20 March 2022. https://indiancountrytoday.com/archive/richard-m-nixon-self-determination-without-termination. Over the years, as the Six Nations territory was further reduced, the Onondaga, Seneca, Tuscarora and some Oneida remained in New York on reservations, while the Mohawk and Cayuga left for Canada and the Oneida settled in Wisconsin and Ontario. In return, the U.S. promised to protect tribal lands from further settlement by white colonists. In 1794, the U.S. government and the Haudenosaunee Confederacy, or Six Nations (comprising the Mohawk, Cayuga, Onondaga, Oneida, Seneca, and Tuscarora Nations of New York), signed the Treaty of Canandaigua. Scheduled meetings with officials at the Department of Interior, the Department of Labor, and the Department of Commerce were canceled without notice. Typically, when Indian delegations came to Washington, the BIA assisted them with logistical matters such as locating housing and scheduling meetings with officials. As a part of the United States treaty and trust responsibilities to provide housing for Indian tribes it is critical for the Subcommittee to hear directly from the SRHA and other tribal housing . USA.gov, The U.S. National Archives and Records Administration We strive for accuracy and fairness. Dennis Banks and Clyde Bellecourt organized the American Indian Movement in Minneapolis, Minnesota in 1968, with the immediate goal of addressing the various socio-economic issues faced by urban Indians: housing, education, employment, and police violence. Treaty of Peace and Amity, Signed at Tripoli June 4, 1805, Commercial treaty with England [microform], United Kingdom Commerce and Navigation Treaty, Jacksonian Foreign Relations; Whig Obstructionism in the French Crisis, Primary Documents U.S. Peace Treaty with Austria, 24 August 1921, Primary Documents U.S. Peace Treaty with Hungary, 24 August 1921, The Avalon Project: Documents in Law, History and Diplomacy, "Treaty on maritime boundaries between the United Mexican States and the United States of America", "World's Worst Internet Law" ratified by Senate, "With more than ..500 treaties already broken, the government can do whatever it wants, it seems", Page 648 US Serial Set, Number 4015, 56the Congress, 1st Session, Hundreds of Native American Treaties Digitized for the First Time Smithsonian Magazine 2020 October 15, National Archives and Museum of Indian Arts & Culture Share New Online Education Tool Expanding Access to Treaties between the U.S. and Native Nations. In September 1778, representatives of the newly formedContinental Congresssigned a treaty with the Lenape (Delaware) at Fort Pitt, Pennsylvania. In 1980, the Supreme Court ruled that the Black Hills were illegally confiscated, and awarded the Sioux more than $100 million in reparations. In the Treaty of Fort Wayne, the Potawatomi, Delaware, Miami, and Eel River tribes ceded 2.5 million acres of their lands in present-day Michigan, Indiana, Illinois, and Ohio for roughly 2 cents an acre, under pressure from William Henry Harrison, the then-governor of Indiana. The treaty contained many of the usual provisions, including one that stated the Indians would commit no depredations on U.S. citizens, nor would they fight with other tribes. The Canandaigua Treaty also recognized the sovereignty of the Six Nations to govern themselves and set their own laws. From the main Microfilm Catalog page, click Advanced Search (next to the Search button). Treaty with the Pawnee Grand, Loups, Republicans, etc. You may also like: A history of police violence in America. A year later, their mother gave birth to twins, Jennifer and Gillian. Even more bizarre was the fact that the lease was indefinite, giving the United States the opportunity to use the area . The takeover of Alcatraz the following year mobilized Native Americans across the country, and influenced the direction of AIMs work. Treaties Between the United States and Native Americans. [2] Towns at the northern border also have relations within reservations within South Dakota. Language links are at the top of the page across from the title. Over 4,000 Cherokee people died on the Trail of Tears. Concluded during the nearly 100-year period from theRevolutionary Warto the aftermath of theCivil War, some 368 treaties would define the relationship between the United States and Native Americans for centuries to come. She has been a frequent contributor to History.com since 2005, and is the author of Breaking History: Vanished! WATCH: Native American History Series on HISTORY Vault. When felonies like murder, kidnapping, burglary, and sexual abuse are carried out in "Indian country," and involve defendants or victims who are Native American, they must be tried in federal. With more demonstrators continuing to arrive from around the country, that number quickly grew to more than 1,000. The Fort Laramie Treaty was negotiated with the Sioux (Dakota, Lakota, and Nakota Nations) and the Arapaho Tribe. But mutual suspicion continued, especially after Pennsylvania militiamen killed nearly 100 Lenape (most of them women and children) at the village of Gnadenhutten in March 1782, mistakenly believing they were responsible for attacks against white settlers. For some Native Americans, Mount Rushmore is a symbol of broken treaties, white domination. The organizers had planned meetings with several government officials and hoped to deliver the Twenty Points proposal directly to President Nixon. The document will be on display in 2016 at the Smithsonian's National Museum of the American Indian for an exhibit on treaties curated by Harjo. October 1540: De Soto and the Spaniards plan to rendezvous with ships in Alabama when they're attacked by Native Americans. By 1972, years of Native American activism had brought about the end of the disastrous policy of termination. Of the nearly 370 treaties negotiated between the U.S. and tribal leaders, Stacker has compiled a list of 15 broken treaties negotiated between 1777 and 1868 using news, archival documents, and Indigenous and governmental historical reports. In 1974, a group of seven farmers in China accidentally uncovered a 2,200-year-old Terracotta Army while digging a well for their village. In the 1980 case United States v. Sioux Nation of Indians, the Supreme Court ruled that the U.S. had illegally expropriated the Black Hills, and that the Sioux were entitled to over $100 million in reparations. The reauthorization and funding for the Native American . In 1835, U.S. government met with a group of Cherokee representatives at New Echota, Georgia, tosign a treatythat traded all 7 million acres of Cherokee land for $5 million and land in Indian Territory. The new movement for Native American rights gave Indians more power in their dealings with the federal government. The treaty was soon broken, however, by white settlers who continued to expand their reach into treaty lands. A fourth caravan later departed from Oklahoma, symbolically retracing the Trail of Tears. Timed to arrive in Washington the week of the 1972 presidential election, the intention was to place American Indian issues at the center of political debate and obtain a commitment from both candidates to honor Indigenous sovereignty. An increasing number of white settlers moved into the Great Lakes region in the 1780s, escalating tension with established Indigenous nations.

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